PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
1. ATOMS, MOLECULES AND STOICHIOMETRY
• Relative masses of atoms and molecules
• The mole, the Avogadro constant
• The calculation of empirical and molecular formulae
• Reacting masses and volumes (of solutions and gases)
2. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• The nucleus of the atom: neutrons and protons, isotopes, proton and nucleon numbers
• Electrons: electronic energy levels, ionisation energies, atomic orbitals, extranuclear structure
3. CHEMICAL BONDING
• Ionic (electrovalent) bonding
• Covalent bonding and co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding
(i) The shapes of simple molecules
(ii) Bond energies, bond lengths and bond polarities
• Intermolecular forces, including hydrogen bonding
• Metallic bonding
• Bonding and physical properties
• The solid state
4. THE GASEOUS STATE
• Ideal gas behaviour and deviations from it
• pV = nRT and its use in determining a value for Mr
5. CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
• Enthalpy changes: ΔH, of formation; combustion; hydration; solution; neutralisation; atomisation;
bond energy; lattice energy; electron affinity
• Hess’ Law, including Born-Haber cycles
• Entropy and Free Energy
6. ELECTROCHEMISTRY
• Redox processes: electron transfer and changes in oxidation number (oxidation state)
• Electrode potentials
(i) Standard electrode (redox) potentials, E ; the redox series
(ii) Standard cell potentials, cell
E , and their uses
(iii) Batteries and fuel cells
• Electrolysis
(i) Factors affecting the amount of substance liberated during electrolysis
(ii) The Faraday constant; the Avogadro constant; their relationship
(iii) Industrial uses of electrolysis
7. EQUILIBRIA
• Chemical equilibria: reversible reactions; dynamic equilibrium
(i) Factors affecting chemical equilibria
(ii) Equilibrium constants
(iii) The Haber process
• Ionic equilibria
(i) Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases
(ii) Acid dissociation constants, Ka
(iii) Base dissociation constants, Kb
(iv) The ionic product of water, Kw
(v) pH: choice of indicators
(vi) Buffer solutions
(vii) Solubility product; the common ion effect
8. REACTION KINETICS
• Simple rate equations; orders of reaction; rate constants
• Concept of activation energy
• Effect of concentration, temperature, and catalysts on reaction rate
• Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis
• Enzymes as biological catalysts
9. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
9.1 THE PERIODIC TABLE: CHEMICAL PERIODICITY
• Periodicity of physical properties of the elements: variation with proton number across the third
period (sodium to argon) of:
(i) atomic radius and ionic radius
(ii) melting point
(iii) electrical conductivity
(iv) ionisation energy
• Periodicity of chemical properties of the elements in the third period
(i) Reaction of the elements with oxygen and chlorine
(ii) Variation in oxidation number of the oxides (sodium to sulphur only) and of the chlorides
(sodium to phosphorus only)
(iii) Reactions of these oxides and chlorides with water
(iv) Acid/base behaviour of these oxides and the corresponding hydroxides
9.2 GROUP II
• Similarities and trends in the properties of the Group II metals magnesium to barium and their
compounds
9.3 GROUP VII
• The similarities and trends in the physical and chemical properties of chlorine, bromine and iodine
(i) Characteristic physical properties
(ii) The relative reactivity of the elements as oxidising agents
(iii) Some reactions of the halide ions
(iv) The reactions of chlorine with aqueous sodium hydroxide
9.4 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS
• General physical and characteristic chemical properties of the first set of transition elements,
titanium to copper
• Colour of complexes
10. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
10.1 INTRODUCTORY TOPICS
In each of the sections below, 10.1 to 10.7, candidates will be expected to be able to predict the
reaction products of a given compound in reactions that are chemically similar to those specified.
• Molecular, structural and empirical formulae
• Functional groups and the naming of organic compounds
• Characteristic organic reactions
• Shapes of organic molecules; σ and π bonds
• Isomerism: structural; geometrical; optical
10.2 HYDROCARBONS
• Alkanes (exemplified by ethane)
(i) Free-radical reactions
• Alkenes (exemplified by ethene)
(i) Addition and oxidation reactions
• Arenes (exemplified by benzene and methylbenzene)
(i) Influence of delocalised π electrons on structure and properties
(ii) Substitution reactions with electrophiles
(iii) Oxidation of side-chain
• Hydrocarbons as fuels
10.3 HALOGEN DERIVATIVES
• Halogenoalkanes and halogenoarenes
(i) Nucleophilic substitution
(ii) Elimination
• Relative strength of the C-Hal bond
10.4 HYDROXY COMPOUNDS
• Alcohols (exemplified by ethanol)
(i) Formation of halogenoalkanes
(ii) Reaction with sodium; oxidation; dehydration
(iii) The tri-iodomethane test
• Phenol
(i) Its acidity; reaction with sodium
(ii) Nitration of, and bromination of, the aromatic ring
10.5 CARBONYL COMPOUNDS
• Aldehydes (exemplified by ethanal)
(i) Oxidation to carboxylic acid
(ii) Reaction with hydrogen cyanide
(iii) Characteristic tests for aldehydes
• Ketones (exemplified by propanone and phenylethanone)
(i) Reaction with hydrogen cyanide
(ii) Characteristic tests for ketones
10.6 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND DERIVATIVES
• Carboxylic acids (exemplified by ethanoic acid and benzoic acid)
(i) Formation from primary alcohols and nitriles
(ii) Salt, ester and acyl chloride formation
• Acyl chlorides (exemplified by ethanoyl chloride)
(i) Ease of hydrolysis compared with alkyl and aryl chlorides
(ii) Reaction with alcohols, phenols and primary amines
• Esters (exemplified by ethyl ethanoate and phenyl benzoate)
(i) Formation from carboxylic acids and from acyl chlorides
(ii) Hydrolysis (under acidic and under basic conditions)
10.7 NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
• Primary amines (exemplified by ethylamine and phenylamine)
(i) Their formation
(ii) Salt formation
(iii) Other reactions of phenylamine
• Amides (exemplified by ethanamide)
(i) Their formation from acyl chlorides
(ii) Their hydrolysis
• Amino acids (exemplified by aminoethanoic acid)
(i) Their acid and base properties
(ii) Zwitterion formation
• Proteins
(i) Protein structure: primary; secondary; tertiary; quaternary structures
(ii) The hydrolysis of proteins
(iii) Denaturation of proteins
Detailed Syllabus (SEAB) [PDF]
2008 GCE A Level Exam Syllabuses
